Sima de los Huesos, a Key to Human Evolution

The Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones in Spanish and typically abbreviated as SH) is a lower Paleolithic site, one of several important sections of the Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo cave system of the Sierra de Atapuerca in north-central Spain. With a total of at least 28 individual hominid fossils now firmly dated to 430,000 years old, SH is the largest and oldest collection of human remains yet discovered. Site Context The bone pit at Sima de los Huesos is at the bottom of the cave, beneath an abrupt vertical shaft measuring between 2-4 meters (6.5-13 feet) in diameter, and located about .5 kilometers (~1/3 of a mile) in from the Cueva Mayor entrance. That shaft extends downward approximately 13 m (42.5 ft), ending just above the Rampa (Ramp), a 9 m (30 ft) long linear chamber inclined about 32 degrees. At the foot of that ramp is deposit called the Sima de los Huesos, a smoothly oblong chamber measuring 8x4 m (26x13 ft) with irregular ceiling heights between 1-2 m (3-6.5 ft). In the roof of the eastern side of the SH chamber is another vertical shaft, which extends upwards some 5 m (16 ft) to where it is blocked by cave collapse. Human and Animal Bones The sites archaeological deposits include a bone-bearing breccia, mixed with many large fallen blocks of limestone and mud deposits. The bones are mainly composed of at least 166 Middle Pleistocene cave bears (Ursus deningeri) and at least 28 individual humans, represented by more than 6,500 bone fragments including over 500 teeth alone. Other identified animals in the pit include extinct forms of Panthera leo (lion), Felis silvestris (wildcat), Canis lupus (grey wolf), Vulpes vulpes (red fox), and Lynx pardina splaea (Pardel lynx). Relatively few of the animal and human bones are articulated; some of the bones have tooth marks from where carnivores have chewed on them. The current interpretation of how the site came to be is that all the animals and humans fell into the pit from a higher chamber and were trapped and unable to get out. The stratigraphy and layout of the bone deposit suggest  the humans were somehow deposited in the cave before the bears and other carnivores. It is also possible—given the large amount of mud in the pit—that all the bones arrived in this low place in the cave through a series of mudflows. A third and quite controversial hypothesis is that the accumulation of human remains might be the result of mortuary practices (see the discussion of Carbonell and Mosquera below). The Humans A central question for the SH site has been and continues to be who were they? Were they Neanderthal, Denisovan, Early Modern Human, some mixture we havent yet recognized? With the fossil remains of 28 individuals who all lived and died about 430,000 years ago, the SH site has the potential to teach us a great deal about human evolution and how these three populations intersected in the past. Comparisons of nine human skulls and numerous cranial fragments representing at least 13 individuals were first reported in 1997 (Arsuaga et a.). A large variety in cranial capacity and other characteristics were detailed in the publications, but in 1997, the site was thought to be about 300,000 years old, and these scholars concluded that the Sima de los Huesos population was evolutionarily related to Neanderthals as a sister group, and could best fit into the then-refined species of Homo heidelbergensis. That theory was supported by results from a somewhat controversial method redating the site to 530,000 years ago (Bischoff and colleagues, see details below). But in 2012, paleontologist Chris Stringer argued that the 530,000-year-old dates were too old, and, based on morphological attributes, the SH fossils represented an archaic form of Neanderthal, rather than H. heidelbergensis. The latest data (Arsuago et al 2014) answers some of Stringers hesitations. Mitochondrial DNA at SH Research on the cave bear bones reported by Dabney and colleagues revealed that, astonishingly, mitochondrial DNA had been preserved at the site, much older than any other found to date anywhere. Additional investigations on the human remains from SH reported by Meyer and colleagues  redated the site to closer to 400,000 years ago. These studies also supply the surprising notion that the SH population shares some DNA with the  Denisovans, rather than the Neanderthals they look like (and, of course, we dont really know what a Denisovan looks like yet). Arsuaga and colleagues reported a study of 17 complete skulls from SH, agreeing with Stringer that, because of numerous Neanderthal-like characteristics of the crania and mandibles, the population does not fit the  H. heidelbergensis  classification. But the population is, according to the authors, significantly different from other groups such as those at Ceprano and  Arago  caves, and from other Neanderthals, and Arsuaga and colleagues now argue that a separate taxon should be considered for the SH fossils. Sima de los Huesos is now dated to 430,000 years ago, and that places it close to the age predicted for when the split in hominid species creating the Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages occurred. The SH fossils are thus central to the investigations concerning how that might have happened, and what our evolutionary history might be. Sima de los Huesos, a Purposeful Burial Mortality profiles (Bermudez de Castro and colleagues) of the SH population show a high representation of adolescents and prime-age adults  and a low percentage of adults between 20 and 40 years of age. Only one individual was under 10 at the time of death, and none were over 40-45 years old. Thats confusing, because, while 50% of the bones were gnaw-marked, they were in fairly good condition: statistically, say the scholars, there should be more children. Carbonell and Mosquera (2006) argued that Sima de los Huesos represents a purposeful burial, based partly on the recovery of a single quartzite  Acheulean handaxe  (Mode 2) and the complete lack of lithic waste or other habitation waste at all. If they are correct, and they are currently in the minority, Sima de los Huesos would be the earliest example of purposeful human burials known to date, by ~200,000 years or so. Evidence suggesting that at least one of the individuals in the pit died as a result of interpersonal violence was reported in 2015 (Sala et al. 2015). Cranium 17 has multiple impact fractures which occurred near the moment of death, and scholars believe this individual was dead at the time s/he was dropped into the shaft. Sala et al. argue that placing cadavers into the pit was indeed a social practice of the community.   Dating Sima de lost Huesos Uranium-series and Electron Spin Resonance dating of the human fossils reported in 1997 indicated a minimum age of about 200,000 and a probable age of greater than 300,000 years ago, which roughly matched the age of the mammals. In 2007, Bischoff and colleagues reported that a high-precision thermal-ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) analysis defines the minimum of deposits age as 530,000 years ago. This date led researchers to postulate that the SH hominids were at the beginning of the  Neanderthal  evolutionary lineage, rather than a contemporary, related sister group. However, in 2012, paleontologist Chris Stringer argued that, based on morphological attributes, the SH fossils represent an archaic form of Neanderthal, rather than  H. heidelbergensis, and that the 530,000-year-old date is too old. In 2014, excavators Arsuaga et al reported new dates from a suite of different dating techniques, including Uranium series (U-series) dating of speleothems, thermally transferred  optically stimulated luminescence  (TT-OSL) and post-infrared stimulated luminescence (pIR-IR) dating of sedimentary quartz and feldspar grains, electron spin resonance (ESR) dating of sedimentary quartz, combined ESR/U-series dating of fossil teeth, paleomagnetic analysis of sediments, and biostratigraphy. Dates from most of these techniques clustered around 430,000 years ago. Archaeology The first human fossils were discovered in 1976, by T. Torres, and the first excavations within this unit were conducted by the Sierra de Atapuerca Pleistocene site group under the direction of E. Aguirre. In 1990, this program was undertaken by J. L. Arsuaga, J. M. Bermudez de Castro, and E. Carbonell. Sources Arsuaga JL, Martà ­nez I, Gracia A, Carretero JM, Lorenzo C, Garcà ­a N, and Ortega AI. 1997.  Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). The site.  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):109-127. Arsuaga JL, Martà ­nez, Gracia A, and Lorenzo C. 1997a.  The Sima de los Huesos crania (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). A comparative study.  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):219-281. Arsuaga JL, Martà ­nez I, Arnold LJ, Aranburu A, Gracia-Tà ©llez A, Sharp WD, Quam RM, Falguà ¨res C, Pantoja-Pà ©rez A, Bischoff JL et al. . 2014.  Neandertal roots: Cranial and chronological evidence from Sima de los Huesos.  Science  344(6190):1358-1363. doi: 10.1126/science.1253958 Bermà ºdez de Castro JM, Martinà ³n-Torres M, Lozano M, Sarmiento S, and Muelo A. 2004.  Paleodemography of the Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos Hominin Sample: A revision and new appropaches to the paleodemongraphy of the European Middle Pleistocene population.  Journal of Anthropological Research  60(1):5-26. Bischoff JL, Fitzpatrick JA, Leà ³n L, Arsuaga JL, Falgueres C, Bahain JJ, and Bullen T. 1997.  Geology and preliminary dating of the hominid-bearing sedimentary fill of the Sima de los Huesos Chamber, Cueva Mayor of the Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain.  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):129-154. Bischoff JL, Williams RW, Rosenbauer RJ, Aramburu A, Arsuaga JL, Garcà ­a N, and Cuenca-Bescà ³s G. 2007.  High-resolution U-series dates from the Sima de  Ã‚  Journal of Archaeological Science  34(5):763-770.los  Huesos hominids yields : implications for the evolution of the early Neanderthal lineage. Carbonell E, and Mosquera M. 2006.  The emergence of  a  symbolic   Comptes Rendus Palevol  5(1–2):155-160.behaviour: the  sepulchral pit of  Sima de  los  Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain. Carretero J-M, Rodrà ­guez L, Garcà ­a-Gonzà ¡lez R, Arsuaga J-L, Gà ³mez-Olivencia A, Lorenzo C, Bonmatà ­ A, Gracia A, Martà ­nez I, and Quam R. 2012.  Stature estimation from complete long bones in the Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sima de  los  Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain).  Journal of Human Evolution  62(2):242-255. Dabney J, Knapp M, Glocke I, Gansauge M-T, Weihmann A, Nickel B, Valdiosera C, Garcà ­a N, Pà ¤Ãƒ ¤bo S, Arsuaga J-L et al. 2013.  Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of a Middle Pleistocene cave bear reconstructed from ultrashort DNA fragments.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  110(39):15758-15763. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1314445110 Garcà ­a N, and Arsuaga JL. 2011.  The Sima de  Ã‚  Quaternary Science Reviews  30(11-12):1413-1419.los  Huesos (Burgos, northern Spain): palaeoenvironment and habitats of Homo heidelbergensis during the Middle Pleistocene. Garcà ­a N, Arsuaga JL, and Torres T. 1997.  The carnivore remains from the Sima de  Ã‚  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):155-174.los  Huesos Middle Pleistocene site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). Gracia-Tà ©llez A, Arsuaga J-L, Martà ­nez I, Martà ­n-Francà ©s L, Martinà ³n-Torres M, Bermà ºdez de Castro J-M, Bonmatà ­ A, and Lira J. 2013.  Orofacial pathology in Homo heidelbergensis: The case of Skull 5 from the Sima de los Huesos site (Atapuerca, Spain).  Quaternary International  295:83-93. Hublin J-J. 2014.  How to build a Neandertal.  Science  344(6190):1338-1339. doi: 10.1126/science.1255554 Martinà ³n-Torres M, Bermà ºdez de Castro JM, Gà ³mez-Robles A, Prado-Simà ³n L, and Arsuaga JL. 2012.  Morphological description and comparison of the dental remains from Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos site (Spain).  Journal of Human Evolution  62(1):7-58. Meyer, Matthias. A mitochondrial genome sequence of a hominin from Sima de los Huesos. Nature volume 505, Qiaomei Fu, Ayinuer Aximu-Petri, et al., Springer Nature Publishing AG, January 16, 2014. Ortega AI, Benito-Calvo A, Pà ©rez-Gonzà ¡lez A, Martà ­n-Merino MA, Pà ©rez-Martà ­nez R, Parà ©s JM, Aramburu A, Arsuaga JL, Bermà ºdez de Castro JM, and Carbonell E. 2013.  Evolution of multilevel caves in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) and its relation to human occupation.  Geomorphology  196:122-137. Sala N, Arsuaga JL, Pantoja-Pà ©rez A, Pablos A, Martà ­nez I, Quam RM, Gà ³mez-Olivencia A, Bermà ºdez de Castro JM, and Carbonell E. 2015.  Lethal Interpersonal Violence in the Middle Pleistocene.  PLoS ONE  10(5):e0126589. Stringer C. 2012.  The status of Homo heidelbergensis (Schoetensack 1908).  Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews  21(3):101-107.

Changing Divorce Laws Essay - 1602 Words

Changing Divorce Laws In 1995, Statistics Canada data shows that 30% of marriages split (McGovern). Since the 1960’s, marriage and divorce have been undergoing profound changes which have altered the meaning of marriage, the chances of its ending in divorce and the circumstances attached to marriage. These changes have made it easier for couples to obtain a divorce due to the changing laws and changing morals of society. The changes include three new grounds needed to prove marital breakdown, such as your spouse committing adultery, your spouse causing mental or physical cruelty or a separation of a year it was previously three years. Divorce also impacts the family as a whole, not only the children but also the two parties†¦show more content†¦Monogamy was out, ‘free love’ thrived, and divorce represented freedom. Enough people wanted divorce by the late 1960’s that the pressure was on to change the law. After long and bitter parliamentary debates, the federal Divorce Act was revised. Additional grounds for divorce included desertion, imprisonment, or separation for at least three years plus marital offences of physical and mental cruelty. The new law eliminated the need to appear in court in most cases – often the most personally humiliating experience in the older legal procedure. The law later changed again in 1985, where it eased off yet again, to allow divorces after only a year’s separation. The broad trend in Canada was to make divorce easier. It was accomplished by making it less fault-oriented where most divorce applications to the courts are no longer contested which eliminates the need for a formal court hearing where both parties testify and ask for different things. With â€Å"no fault† splits in place, the social stigma of divorce shrank. As more people divorced the stigma weakened further. The cycle continued while the divorce rate soared. 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Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression Free Essays

Describe and evaluate biological explanations of depression There are many different explanations for depression, including biological. Links have been found between biochemical, genetics and hormonal imbalances with depressed people. In the biochemical explanation, a link has been found between neurotransmitter imbalances and depression. We will write a custom essay sample on Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression or any similar topic only for you Order Now Serotonin is associated with pleasure and mood. Mann et al found impaired transmission of serotonin in people with depression. However Julian disagrees with this statement and says depression may be due to neuron damage rather than a neurotransmitter reduction. The problem with this approach is that it implies correlation and not causation, there may be a link but something else could be causing both depression and low serotonin. There is the chicken and egg problem – does low serotonin cause depression or does depression cause low serotonin? In other areas of psychology low serotonin has been linked with increased aggression and eating disorders, as well as anxiety. Someone that has low serotonin does not necessarily become depressed. There is also the problem where people are depressed but have normal serotonin levels. This shows that depression is not fully down to biochemical imbalances but other things as well. It is a very simplistic and reductionist model and should only be included as a vulnerability and not the whole answer to depression. Another explanation is a genetic problem. Through many family studies Gershon states there is a clear inheritable component to depression, especially in bipolar disorder. Weisseman et al supports this by saying that for if a child has a parent with depression, the risk of the child having depression is increased by three times compared to the general population. This is a strong finding but as the children share the same environment as their parents, there is a possibility that the child has learnt the behaviour through the social learning theory of imitating and observing and not through genetics. Kendler et al studied over 15000 twins in Sweden and found that if one twin has depression, there is a 38% chance that the other twin will have it too. This has strong methodology and is supported by many twin studies who have found similar results. On the other hand the twins share the same environment and so environmental influences may still be possible. The results were nowhere near 100% showing that depression is not fully down to genes, the people may have a genetic vulnerability but it takes something to trigger, perhaps. It is also unclear as to how exactly genes play a role in depression, without knowing the exact genes involved. Another way to access the significance of genes is through adoption studies. Wender found that a child is seven times more likely to have depression if the biological parents were depressed and the adoption parents were not. They found little evidence of depression being learnt. However Wender got his information about biological relatives just from hospital records and so there could be error of misdiagnosis or short-term depression only. The knowledge of whether a person has a genetic vulnerability to depression can be useful as the person is able to take preventative measures (change in lifestyle, diet to bring positivity to avoid depression), but it could be fatalistic as they understand they are more likely to become depressed – leading to depression. Diathesis-stress model says that depression can be better understood as an interaction between genes and environmental factors. Carroll found that high levels of the hormone cortisol are found in those suffering from depression and techniques known to suppress cortisol secretion have been found to be successful in depressive patients. However cortisol is released when stressed and so the high levels could be due to the high levels of stress the person has when they are depressed. As depression is twice as common in women as men, it could be due to the differences in sex hormones. Post-natal depression could be due to the high levels of oestrogen and progesterone that are released during pregnancy and then rapidly decrease once the baby is born which may account for an imbalance of hormones. Cooper disagrees with this statement as there was very little difference in the number of women suffering from depression after childhood and a control group of non-pregnant women at the same age. If imbalance of hormones was the cause then most mothers should get this type of illness but it is only a small number that get it. Menopausal depression is where oestrogen levels drop and hormone replacement therapy appears to be affective in treating many (but not all) women who suffer from this type of depression. However this could be due to the negative thoughts of getting older rather than the hormonal imbalance. Through the biological approach there are many possibilities. I think it is a mixture of biological vulnerabilities and stressful environments. How to cite Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression, Essay examples Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression Free Essays Describe and evaluate biological explanations of depression There are many different explanations for depression, including biological. Links have been found between biochemical, genetics and hormonal imbalances with depressed people. In the biochemical explanation, a link has been found between neurotransmitter imbalances and depression. We will write a custom essay sample on Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression or any similar topic only for you Order Now Serotonin is associated with pleasure and mood. Mann et al found impaired transmission of serotonin in people with depression. However Julian disagrees with this statement and says depression may be due to neuron damage rather than a neurotransmitter reduction. The problem with this approach is that it implies correlation and not causation, there may be a link but something else could be causing both depression and low serotonin. There is the chicken and egg problem – does low serotonin cause depression or does depression cause low serotonin? In other areas of psychology low serotonin has been linked with increased aggression and eating disorders, as well as anxiety. Someone that has low serotonin does not necessarily become depressed. There is also the problem where people are depressed but have normal serotonin levels. This shows that depression is not fully down to biochemical imbalances but other things as well. It is a very simplistic and reductionist model and should only be included as a vulnerability and not the whole answer to depression. Another explanation is a genetic problem. Through many family studies Gershon states there is a clear inheritable component to depression, especially in bipolar disorder. Weisseman et al supports this by saying that for if a child has a parent with depression, the risk of the child having depression is increased by three times compared to the general population. This is a strong finding but as the children share the same environment as their parents, there is a possibility that the child has learnt the behaviour through the social learning theory of imitating and observing and not through genetics. Kendler et al studied over 15000 twins in Sweden and found that if one twin has depression, there is a 38% chance that the other twin will have it too. This has strong methodology and is supported by many twin studies who have found similar results. On the other hand the twins share the same environment and so environmental influences may still be possible. The results were nowhere near 100% showing that depression is not fully down to genes, the people may have a genetic vulnerability but it takes something to trigger, perhaps. It is also unclear as to how exactly genes play a role in depression, without knowing the exact genes involved. Another way to access the significance of genes is through adoption studies. Wender found that a child is seven times more likely to have depression if the biological parents were depressed and the adoption parents were not. They found little evidence of depression being learnt. However Wender got his information about biological relatives just from hospital records and so there could be error of misdiagnosis or short-term depression only. The knowledge of whether a person has a genetic vulnerability to depression can be useful as the person is able to take preventative measures (change in lifestyle, diet to bring positivity to avoid depression), but it could be fatalistic as they understand they are more likely to become depressed – leading to depression. Diathesis-stress model says that depression can be better understood as an interaction between genes and environmental factors. Carroll found that high levels of the hormone cortisol are found in those suffering from depression and techniques known to suppress cortisol secretion have been found to be successful in depressive patients. However cortisol is released when stressed and so the high levels could be due to the high levels of stress the person has when they are depressed. As depression is twice as common in women as men, it could be due to the differences in sex hormones. Post-natal depression could be due to the high levels of oestrogen and progesterone that are released during pregnancy and then rapidly decrease once the baby is born which may account for an imbalance of hormones. Cooper disagrees with this statement as there was very little difference in the number of women suffering from depression after childhood and a control group of non-pregnant women at the same age. If imbalance of hormones was the cause then most mothers should get this type of illness but it is only a small number that get it. Menopausal depression is where oestrogen levels drop and hormone replacement therapy appears to be affective in treating many (but not all) women who suffer from this type of depression. However this could be due to the negative thoughts of getting older rather than the hormonal imbalance. Through the biological approach there are many possibilities. I think it is a mixture of biological vulnerabilities and stressful environments. How to cite Describe and Evaluate Biological Explanations of Depression, Essays

Why Do Few Women Attain Top Management Positions free essay sample

Women have been striving for equal rights for themselves for a long time and they are gradually achieving the goal. As a result, when it comes to managerial area, women’s voices have been heard and responded little by little, more and more women are moving into higher posts in their working. Nevertheless, the business is still strictly run by males, only few women gets the chance to top in management positions, which, at the same time, has already intrigued great debates among all parties. This paper tries to look for the reasons why few women set foot in the top leading places and see whether women are less-qualified to handle the deal or are there any other barriers hinder them from moving forward. Introduction There have been an increasing number of women getting involved in leaderships in corporations for quite some time. Generally, people are used to be in a man-dominated business world, given that more males hold â€Å"the vast majority of top leadership positions† across the world ( Stelter cited in Weyer, 2007). We will write a custom essay sample on Why Do Few Women Attain Top Management Positions? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Yet, it seems that there is a sign for a change when we notice the fact that, according to the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the proportion of females holding managerial and administrative posts in the USA have risen from 18% in 1972 to 46% in 2002 (Eagly Carli, 2003). However, despite the ascending numbers, women still remain mostly in junior or middle management positions, few of them obtain the top jobs, as shown by the Catalyst, a New York-based consulting firm, there were only 17 female CEOs within the Fortune 1000 companies, while only 13. % women are directors in board of Fortune 500 companies ( Weyer, 2007). Approximately 40% of the Fortune 501-1000 corporations composed their Boards of Directors with no woman involved in 1999 (Catalyst cited in Winn, 2004) What is holding women back from being on top? There are various reasons for this issue. This essay is going to discuss the possible justifications dealing with women’s halt in climbing up in corporations, to ex plore whether it’s stemmed from women’s biological or pyscholological nature or from the environment. By comparing the characteristics of male and female in leader position as well as looking for the obstacles women have encountered, it would be a clear picture to tell if women are qualified in the upper leader positions that companies should have open minds to accept and encourage women in top administrative places. Sex differences Are women and men distinguished notably when it comes to their qualifications engaging with leadership? Would the differences, if any, be the obstacle that keeps women from being exclusive in the hierarchy system in companies? A considerable number of research has been done on this subject as it has received enduring attention during the past thirty or so years (Alimo-Metcalfe,Bartol, Bruke and Collins cited in Weyer,p489. 2007). These researches have been summarized by Weyer (2007) in two main schools: one school of investigators claim that females execute assignments in a remarkably opposite way to males, and women are endowed with distinctive talent in managing people as well as weakness by nature; whereas the other school tends to agree that women behave no less the same as their masculine encounters in managerial area. To the former researchers, the majority of them concluded their assumptions by individual organizational practices or face-to-face arrangements with managers or other unofficial investigations. They are inclined to the opinion that females are more of subordinate supporters and are effective in exchanging ideas when compared with males. Combining their arguments with the developing theories of leadership conditional environment, stating that â€Å"the effectiveness of leader behaviors depends on contextual variables, such as the nature of the task and the characteristics of the followers†(EaglyCarli, 2003, p. 808), such gurus presume that women perform better in executive posts in â€Å"contemporary† corporate trend (Eagly, Johanneaen Van Engen, 2003, p. 569). However, there exists another voice claiming that no gender diversity is attached to male-female administration. Some academic writers criticizes the perspectives of dissimilar between men and women are based on â€Å"generalisability† of what we already â€Å"know† about gender differences, thus, people tend to do their surveys with a differences-orientation, which would intentionally influences the outcome of their â€Å"experimentation† (Colwill, 1995, pp. 20-33). Not this merely but also, Colwill pointed out that â€Å"there are no true experiments in this area†, noticing that â€Å"sex-differences research is always, of necessity, correlational,†¦,for sex differences often mask other variables in the research† (ibid,p. 1). However, she continued to compare female with male in other abilities specifically. After recognizing women owns different qualities involving in physical terms and especially in cognition, other than men, Colwill holds the view that both women and men are endorsed with some natural strengths, yet, still, nothing to show women woul d perform worse than men do in top executive fields, but, in fact, as Colwill wrote: The quality of leadership was not determined by sex; it was determined by the organizational resources and organizational support that was accorded to the manager†(ibid. To summarize, it’s convincing that those two groups of experts both make some sense and have very persuasive grounds of argument, despite they deduct totally different set of theories. It’s not an easy path to identify the differences between two genders and decide one to be superior. However, as far as we can concern, there are no evidence sufficiently provided to say that women are totally unfitted in top managerial positions though supporters of the first view might figure men are more capable in dealing with some certain sort of issues. Hence, we can now put away the thoughts that female are allocated to be held behide the upper executive jobs. Sex discriminations Then, what could possibly be the â€Å"glass ceiling† that insulates women from climbing up? As a matter of fact, more and more specialist turn to a less controversial corner, the social role stereotype, or, to put it more frankly, say gender discrimination. The metaphor â€Å"glass ceiling† illustrates that there are unseen barriers to block women from going upward (Weyer, 2007, p. 83). These barriers might refer to â€Å"corporate practices†, †behavioral and cultural causes† and â€Å"structural and cultural explanations rooted in feminist theories†(ibid. ). According to the social role theory, men and women are assigned with different roles correspondent with their genders. For instance, apparently, women are defined as a wife in their marriage, the one to take care of housework as well as cautiously nurturing bab y. This framed role actually make a great impact on career women’s way to success, as they certainly have to strike a difficult balance between the pressured up-going in business and the no less stressful family trifles. To quote from Winn, â€Å"women are not prepared for the corporate pressures that impinged on their role in the family ( the role that they were taught to play)† (2004). It was found by White(1997) that many successful women have suffered â€Å"role conflicts† and â€Å"identity diffusion† for quite some time and hence lose a lot of good promotion opportunities( Winn, 2004, p. 47). Gilchrist (2002) even regards family life and job working as a war with guilt, while Morris (2002) tops household responsibilities at the list of reasons few women manage to get in top(ibid. p. 144). Furthermore, in spite of the family occasion, there are far more troubles fetter females in competing with their polar fellows, one prominent concern is that women are actually struggling in an â€Å"old boys’ club† (Burke, 2003, p. 346). This means, in the process of getting up, women need to get approval from their male managers; they need to survive from a recruitment system which is completely built up by man superiors as well as the selection and assessment methods, they get to obey and follow male-oriented organizational policies and structures. As reasonably stated by Burke (2003), to call on a revolution in board members â€Å"is similar to asking the fox to guard the chicken house†. As a result, in the short term, prejudice, unjust assessments on account of stereotypical judgments making people ignore ndividual’s real qualifications will remain a big role that keeps women from moving up to the top. Conclusion To sum up, the barriers that hold women back from seeking top places in corporation are not because of their lack of outstanding qualities but the stubborn social role framework attached to them. It’s true that men and women might be endowed with different gifts by nature, though tha t have nothing much to say that they are excellent in managing on top. On contrary, men are not preferred to be leaders inherently; rather they take most advantage of being in a man-dominated situation. Compared with the debates in sex differences, it’s almost undeniable that a majority of qualified women are constrained by the stereotypical prejudice, which often make people underestimate their real talent in engaging in supervised posts.

Obstacles to Pollution Prevention Essay Example

Obstacles to Pollution Prevention Paper One example of incremental changes that was provided by the author was eliminating chlorofluorocarbons and saving energy by replacing a refrigeration process with a heath exchanger that can exploit waste cooling from another part of the process. There are three critical decision-making stages for incremental changes; identifying a pollution prevention opportunity, finding a solution appropriate to that opportunity, and implementing that solution. The author discusses the three aspects of an organization (culture, ability to process information, and its politics) and how they impact the decision-making stages. Culture can affect an organizations pollution prevention in a number of different ways. First, organizations can make a cultural assumption that knowledge cannot be built based on hands-on experience. Also, corporations use committees or SWAT teams and due to their limited knowledge of the production processes they typically conclude that there are no preventative opportunities. Politics can also prove to be an obstacle to pollution prevention. When the environmental manager develops a solution, it requires the engineers and operators to work together. Engineers are often younger and lack the advanced interpersonal skills needed to solicit and obtain help from operators. Operators are older and generally do not relay possible improvements to the engineers. The following will discuss the problem, stakeholders, solution and implementation. Statement of the problem The problem with pollution prevention is that it requires people to understand more than the intimate details of the production process; they just also understand the technical possibilities. We will write a custom essay sample on Obstacles to Pollution Prevention specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Obstacles to Pollution Prevention specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Obstacles to Pollution Prevention specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Many corporations have environmental managers, which are generally responsible for helping corporations comply with the law. According to the case study, the work of environmental managers Often expose them to many pollution prevention solutions, but they often have trouble getting access to production areas. Production often sees Environmental Managers as the compliance police. Stakeholders The stakeholders in this case study include the corporation, the community and the countryside. Although not mentioned directly in the case study, additional stakeholders include employees, shareholders, suppliers and customers. Solutions Two potential solutions to a corporations pollution prevention obstacles would be the following: provide additional training to environmental managers and change the production floors view of the environmental manager. Train environmental managers to better understand the production processes. Once the managers understand the various different processes, they will be able to understand more of the intimate details of the production recess. The environmental managers can then make recommendations with a greater understanding of the technical possibilities. Another problem with the environmental manager is that the production floor views this individual as the compliance police. The corporation will need to change the production floor views of the environmental manager in order for the manager to gain access to the production floor. Implementation The above detailed two solutions to the obstacles to pollution prevention. The first solution will be implemented as follows: 1. The first solution is to train the environmental manager in the production processes so that he/she will be able to understand more of the intimate details of the production process. Implemented by: production manager and Environmental Manager Completion date: 2 months, with refresher training quarterly for the first year and yearly there after. Possible problems: After training the environmental manager still does not understand enough of the process to effectively recommend improvements. Also, if the environmental manager hinges jobs, training will have to begin all over again for the new manager. 2. The second solution is to improve the relationship between the environmental manager and production floor. Managers could develop an employee involvement program where employees would be encouraged to discuss potential environmental improvements with the environmental manager. Implemented by: Departmental managers and Environmental Manager Completion Date: Ongoing Possible problems: Continued resistance from production floor and resistance to change from corporation.

How Music Impact Society Essays

How Music Impact Society Essays How Music Impact Society Paper How Music Impact Society Paper Music is perhaps one of the most powerful forces we encounter. Music can provide an emotional outlet, a place to voice opinions, a hobby, past time, entertainment, fun, a place to turn to, a controversial outlet, spiritual bonding, fame, fortune, hope, guidance, healing powers, and gives us the words we cannot say on our own. Music has Just so many capabilities that have been used for millions of years. Everything from the way messages were conveyed among slaves, to the tribal preaching the Native Americans used to Patrice revolved around music. Music is the most nfluential industry in the world, and it has the power to send messages to millions and allow an outlet for protest, generate billions of dollars, capture the attention of people all over the globe, and it even holds the power to have positive effects on our mental health. Jaime Ferris, writer for the Housatonic Times quoted The truest expression of a people is in its dance and music. For centuries the music industry has pushed the limits on the right to freedom of speech. Back to the days when America had slavery, the slaves would make hymns while working in the fields. Often times these hymns had underlying connotative rebellion. In the time of slavery it was unheard of to even neither question your owner let alone question your captivity nor try to escape. If a slave were to question the authority they would suffer sever beatings. Because of the consequences the slaves found other means of communication, through song. If we look at a well known piece entitled Follow The Drinking Gord we can quickly pick up on Just how song was used to pass messages, that would other wise be punishable. According to osblackhistory. om in the first verse the slaves are instructed to leave in the winter when the sun is at its highest altitude When the sun comes back. The drinking gourd refers to the Big Dipper in its spoon like shape, and the great big river refers to the Ohio River. In Just one verse the message of when to leave where to go and what to follow is laid out. l Because this message was conveyed through song, the slaves were able to sing it freely to sp read the word. Today more than ever the use of song to convey messages that might other wise be banned is in effect. The vast number of artist who sings about marijuana is astounding. As listed on kindgergreenbuds. com a person possessing this illegal substance can either be subject to a class a misdemeanor or s a class C felony. In Michigan if a person is caught even though simple drug test as having used the substance its still considered possession and punishable by a 100 dollar fine and 90 days in Jail. If this substance is so easily punishable then why is it okay to have numerous songs praising the act? As far back as 1932 when Baron Lee and the Blue Rhythm Band had a song titled The Reefer Man and while the substance behind this song may not have been illegal then, it is today and still hundreds of songs are written about it. For example a song entitled Kush by multi latinum artist Lil Wayne the lyrics And I smoke that Kush Yeah, that Kush Yeah, and I ball like swoosh. This song is such a prime example of evidence that one was using the substance, but because its written in song its considered freedom of speech, and unsuitable for the general audience of our society. Much the way the slaves used music as an outlet to rebel against something they could be punished for, artists today are contlnulng to 00 tne same. Anotner example 0T Treeaom 0T speecn Delng carried out through music is from the 60s anti- war era. Legend Bob Dylan was notorious for his anti-war protest songs. In the song Man on the Street, Dylan explains the human suffering that is caused by human cruelty. Dylans message was perhaps the government of the United States is and was so tied up with other improvements, conflicts, and business actions in other countries, that they forget that they must run this country. Dylans point is very accurate and holds strong today. For example, the US government reacted nearly 13 times quicker to earthquake in Haiti, than they did to hurricane Katrina. Dylan made it clear that the political problems in the United States although heavily produced by the government were not out of the each of the general public. He preached via song that the problems are actually right by our side and we could help to solve the problems. Perhaps a more modern example of the same genera would be the popular top 40 song entitled Waiting on the World to Change by Grammy winner John Mayer. This song hit airwaves in 2006, and became very popular, very fast. In combination with the songs catchy rhythm, was its controversial, yet inspiring lyrics. Mayer is conveying the message of the problems the country is and was facing and how were all simply waiting on things to change yet no one is doing their part to make it happen. Mayer did an interview with the Daily Mail December 21, 2007, where he stated that his main intention was to cause a debate. Thats exactly what this song has done. For example the lyrics say Now if we had the power to bring our neighbors home from war/ they would have never missed a Christmas/ no more ribbons on their door/ and when you trust your television / what you get is what you got/ cause when they own the information, Oh they can bend it all they want This statement is a direct target against the government, and the war this country has been in. Hes taking the side of everyone hat was against the war and saying if they had the power they could bring them back, but instead they sit back and watch as information about whats really going on unfolds. And then he goes to say that when youre merely trusting your televisions newscasts you can hardly even trust whats being said because its their information and they can twist, crop, and edit a story to be anything they want it to be. This stab at the government and media system is his view. Through this song he has managed to get his view to millions of people, and whether they agree or disagree they still have thought about his debate-sparking message. Mayer has achieved success in reaching millions, and getting his message across using freedom of speech through music. The bottom line is that a political message in a song is not any different than free speech guaranteed under the US Constitution. Its in fact a more conventional way to get point across. As long as there is a cause or an event that provokes emotions, there will be songs and speeches on both ends of any issue. Music has not only caused commotion by being an outlet for freedom of speech, but essentially the entire music industry is the single most successful, and talked about industry world wide. Any time theres an award show, or special Just for TV concert, no matter whom the star, or what the genre of music is, the stations that broadcast the event reach record high numbers of viewers. The average late night show such as the Tonight Show with Conan OBrian for example get an average of 5. 4 million viewers a night, but on the night of the 2009 teen choice awards, there was an estimated 44. 5 billion vlewers. Pernaps tne splKe In vlewers Is wnat alas In tne astounalng amount 0T press the music industry gathers. During the 2009 Teen Choice awards, Miley Cyrus performed her infamous hit Party In The I-ISA. This performance made controversy all across the globe, it was speculated that her dance moves, were distasteful and actually pole dancing moves. The video of this performance gathered more than 1,701 , 135 views in the first three nights that it was available. This infamous event, also generated hundreds of stories, online forums and made its self a trending topic on the social networking site twitter for nearly a month. The music industry not only generates mass media attention, its one of the most successful industries monetarily as well. The US and its citizens have been struggling with money since the Iraq war, nd officially declared recession in 2007. Despite the recession, in 2008 the United States spent over 40. 3 billion dollars in CD sales alone. In 2010 the US spent nearly 1 1 billion dollars on live concert tickets. Americans that are in poverty are still finding a way to attend a concert put on by their favorite artist, buy their music to support them, and wear their merchandise. The music industry is becoming so popular that its starting to not only aid in but nearly take over the film world as well. In 2008, Disney star, Hannah Montana came out with the first 3D concert movie. This was considered revolutionary and drew great attention. This film drew an array of viewers and it made an estimated gross total of 65,281,781 dollars. This 3D movie was played in all major movie theaters, and displayed live concert footage making the viewer feel as if they were there, and even gave them a behind the scenes look. Since the release of this such as The Jonas Brothers, Michael Jackson, Celine Dion, and Kenny Chesney have all made their own 3D hits. Music has immense power, but its not limited to protest, controversy, media, and money it holds so much more potential. In fact, music has not only invaded the film world, its also finding its way into our medical field. While the idea has been around for thousands of years, recently the topic of music therapy is becoming more and more common when patient treatment is discussed. Used to help treat cancer, mentally ill, and cardio patients, music has been proven to be one of medicines finest tools. For thousands of years music as been used as a therapeutic technique. Greek philosophers who believed that music could heal the soul started the concept of Musical therapy. After world war two the concept of music therapy was used to treat the veterans who have undergone sever post war trauma. This practice was carried out in a more conventional way however. The administrators in the hospitals would play soothing sounds when patients would feel urges of rage. In 1944, Michigan State University established the first music therapy degree program in the world. Today approximately seventy colleges and universities offer degrees and courses approved by the American Music Therapy Association. Barbara Crowe the past president of the National Association for Music Therapy said (Music therapy) can make the difference between withdrawal and awareness, between isolation and interaction, between chronic pain and comfort between demoralization and dignity. Musical Therapy has been proven to stimulate he brain, release good chemicals in our blood and brains and aid in the bodys physical and mental healing. According to centerformusicaltherapy. com Musical Therapy has been shown to help patients with closed head injuries speed their recovery process by 37%. Musical therapy has been used with patients who undergo cnemotnerapy to onset tne mina ana Its Deen proven tnat It eases anxlety ana nausea. Musical therapy has also been used on heart patients. According to Association for Musical Therapy, studies have shown a reduction in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, insomnia, depression, and anxiety for those patients. While musical therapy has been shown successful in treatment of ill, its also been proven that students who play an instrument or take a music class have IQ levels up to 30% higher than the students who have no musical background. With the power to send messages to millions and allow an outlet for protest, generate billions of dollars, capture the attention of people all over the globe, and provide medical healing, its no question that music is one of the most unstoppable forces in the world. Musics played a strong role in spreading messages for centuries, starting with the slaves and ontinuing today. Music has also broken barriers, by nearly revolutionizing the film industry and creating one of kind movies. Music has made such a bridge that its now an essential medical tool. Starting with the ancient Greeks and following through today musical therapy has been shown to help in various medical cases. Music is simply a strong force that is crucial to the way we all live. Seeing Just how music has evolved and captured not only our country but also the world, in so many different revenues, its only imaginable what advancements music can hold for us in the future.

Leslie Fay Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Leslie Fay Case Study - Essay Example The essay "Leslie Fay Case Study" tries to deeper understand what happened at the Leslie Fay Companies by analyzing the business organization. The first four are geared in the strategic aspect of the firm. Prior to the audit failure, Leslie Fay’s mission is to design, manufacture, and sell moderately priced and stylishly conservative women’s dresses. The company’s product lines are targeted to women aged 30-55 years old. Even though indirectly stated, the company has no plan of changing its products in order to cope with the emerging trends. The company opts to stick with its current fashion statement. In order to pursue its vision of staying on top on the industry, Leslie Fay utilizes a strategy of designing and manufacturing products by trusting the instincts of the designers. It should be noted that as opposed to other industry players which rely on customer preference, the business organization opted to create what is fashionable for the customer. The whole marketing mix of Leslie Fay can be stated as offering fashionable clothing at a moderate price in department stores and enhancing a customer experience by offering seasonal discounts. Armed with this strategy, Leslie Fay captures its market niche and creates strong brand equity. In terms of financing, the firm relies both on liabilities and equities. It can be recalled that Leslie Fay banked on its prominence and profitability and went public in as early as 1952. The technology is seen as insignificant in the operation of Leslie Fay.

The pharmaceutical industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The pharmaceutical industry - Essay Example These blockbuster drugs, which could have yielded substantial profits for their manufacturers have to be pulled out of the market due to mounting number of lawsuits from patients. These episodes have also proven to be public relations disasters for the pharmaceutical industry, which could explain the decline in profits. There are some political reasons as well. For example, growing health-care costs are heatedly debated in the Congress and Presidential races. Healthcare costs in the United States are the highest within the industrial world and its outcomes are some of the poorest. The pressure from the general public to reverse this trend has meant that politicians are skeptical to make further concessions to Pharmaceuticals industry. Also, there was a dip in the annual spending on prescription drugs since 2003. Between 1990 and 2003, there was a 12.5% annual increase in spending, which was expected to lower to 10% annual growth till 2013. Hence, there are a multitude of factors that have contributed to the decline in profits of pharmaceutical companies. Going forward, the prospects for the pharmaceutical industry will depend on the usefulness of genomics technology in helping find cures for various chronic ailments. Again, there is a political angle to this scenario, as conservative sections of the demography are against stem-cell research and genomics-based medical interventions, which they argue is unethical from a theological viewpoint. Having said so, scientific advancement in this area could open up plenty of revenue generating opportunities for companies in the pharmaceutical industry. There are some valid threats as well, including the pressure exerted on the judiciary to reduce the span of proprietary patents from 20 years to lesser. The smaller competitors to mega-corporations like Pfizer argue that the monopoly offered by such patents virtually wipes out competition and hands over unlimited pricing power to

Moral Frameworks for Business Ethics Research Paper

Moral Frameworks for Business Ethics - Research Paper Example Organizations undergo in part a morality breadth by which the organizations are ruled. The people who execute are morally responsible to the people they serve. Similarly, they should also be an inspiration by creating trust and leading via common purpose and understanding. The decisions made by corporations cannot be separated from culture, behavior, and structure. A proposal was outlined by some researchers to associate a corporation to its political and social environment in the same way their decisions interfaced with the economic environment and the structure of the industry. This research represented a rigorous understanding call for social and ethical characteristics, which dominated decision making for corporations. In the last ten years, a large amount of journals in ethics has gained development. In the management of corporations, the strategic part of it came into existence recently and currently is used in planning and business. A researcher took a position that was radica l that there is intrinsic worth in stakeholder’s interest irrespective of if its advances to shareholders interest. From this point of view, a corporation’s success is not the last but in another way should be viewed as a vessel to the advancement of stakeholders’ interest. Ethical analysis is the way of arriving at conflicts resolution in goals and morals. It is vital in business. CSR developments have led to the questioning of investments decision’s moral sensitivity. Facts Morality is majorly on the norms, beliefs, and values which are embedded in the process of socialization, which defines the wrong and right of a specific society. All human beings have a morality which is basic in sensing of wrong and right in association with an activity. In a corporation, the management personnel is recognized as moral people. Moral problems majorly concentrate on the harms brought by or caused to people in ways they cannot control. The principle of harm has been d erived from many sources inclusive of utilitarian, contractual, virtue ethics and deontology. According to the utilitarian, the correct actions are the ones which excavate the best from any given situation. Therefore, harming others does not produce anything good, and if harm is prevented there are always good results in most cases. Every manager in any corporation makes decisions based on this case. Moral problems majorly focus on harms caused to specific groups or individuals beyond their control. The moral problems, which are related to working conditions, are complicated as the harm they cause to particular people or group is due to the benefits derived by others. For instance, the employees of a specific company might be working under pathetic conditions as their managers have embezzled some funds that were meant to deal with the situation. In contrary, a company at times has to execute irrespective of the harm that is caused to other people. The secret behind morality is relat ed to the notion that moral issues are not measures which vary with economic and cultural conditions. The application of morality to business has been made more acceptable than before. Morality in business provides an explicit framework of morality within which business can specifically be evaluated activities by corporations.  

Comparison of Subculture and Countercultures

Comparison of Subculture and Countercultures In any society there are not only cultures, but also a variety of subculture and countercultures that develop within society. Subcultures and countercultures are formed by generalizations, occupation, class, lifestyle, likes, dislikes, etc. [1] Basically subculture is a group of people that differentiate from the larger culture that they belong to. In earlier 1950s, there has been a distinction between an accepted majority style and a subculture as an active minority style. Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is subversion to normality. Subcultures tend to be perceived as negative and have a nature of criticism. Subcultures bring together individuals who feel neglected and allow them to develop a sense of identity. [2] Counterculture is a sociological term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a cultural group. Counterculture can also be described as a group whose behavior deviates from the societal norm. Although distinct countercultural undercurrents have existed in many societies, here the term refers to a more significant, visible phenomenon that reaches critical mass and persists for a period of time. It is important to distinguish between counterculture, and subculture. [3] Subculture A subculture is a group of individuals that do share some qualities that the majority of society share, but the group has its own values, beliefs, norms, behavior, etc. Subcultures tend to be created when society endures problems or enjoys common privileges. Most individuals within a subculture have common interests and beliefs.   Types of subculture   Following are the major types of subculture. Organizational Culture A type of subculture that allows members to have solidarity, community, and social relationships that influence individual behavior. It is the way an organization deals with the environment.   Counterculture It is a type of subculture that completely disregards societys norms and values and creates new ones.   They tend to develop when people will not conform to the mainstream.   They have their own beliefs, problems with cultural integration, and have their own material culture. [1] Racial or nationality subcultures These subcultures tend to vary in their values, ambition and beliefs which get reflected in their consumption priorities, spend save patterns, purchase behavior, use of credit, social traditions and customs etc.Nowadays multiracial societies like America comprised of citizens who come from different nationalities or belong to different races. Religious subcultures: Most societies of the world today consist of people subscribing to different religions, which may differ in their beliefs, values and customs. The religious subgroups may follow different custom, have important rites of passage (like birth, marriage and death) performed in different ways and have different festivals. [4] Counter culture vs. Sub culture Counterculture can be defined as a group whose behavior deviates from the societal norm. It is different to the mainstream culture in their politics, norms, social beliefs, and way of dress and social structures. (or) A counter culture is one that reacts against the prevailing culture in place. Example: Throughout the last century examples of counterculture might be the suffragettes, the green movement, polygamists and feminists, punk movement and the infamous hippie counterculture movement of the 1960s, are formed and exist to oppose the dominant culture. All of these counter cultures have specific beliefs and values that cause social change. Counter cultures are large movements that cause social change. Counter cultures are against mainstream culture.[5] Members of a counterculture come together around their desire to reject movements within the larger, dominant culture. While members have this opposition in common, they may not share religious or political affiliations, similar socioeconomic situations, or values. Countercultures can be both negative and positive. They can also become larger when more people are involved and assimilate into the mainstream just as subcultures in general have this potential.[6] Biker Gangs, drug users, career criminals, prisoners, and terrorists have in common that they all have negative perceptions from society and are countercultures. [7] Subculture A sub culture can have its own beliefs, norms and values, but they are generally able to exist within mainstream culture. Their beliefs or manner of being may be different enough to make them stand out, but they are not at odds with society. Subculture is a culture shared and actively participated in by a minority of people within a broader culture. Examples: sub cultures might be Goths, emos, surfies, homies etc. Jews and Tea Party members are both examples of subcultures in the U.S. While the Jewish subculture is based around shared religious values, the Tea Party movement was primarily founded around dissatisfaction with the political status. Sub cultures tend to also share common interests and experience. Sub cultures can exist within mainstream culture.[5] Sub cultures are united by common aesthetics, interests and experience. Subcultures are distinctive segments of the larger culture of a region or society that are marked by shared interests in music or cultural phenomena, membership in a specific ethnic or religious group, or shared socioeconomic status. While some subcultures exist in contradistinction to the societys dominant culture, others exist harmoniously within it. Subcultures incorporate large parts of the broader cultures of which they are part, but in specifics they may differ radically. Subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a sense of identity. Subcultures can be distinctive because of the age, ethnicity, class, location, and/or gender of the members. [6] The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be linguistic, aesthetic, religious, political, sexual, geographical or a combination of factors. They certainly play an important role in any individual life and help to explain how each person develops a frame of reference. [7] Everybody has their own perceptions on society, values, and life in general. Values, attitudes, gestures, and sanctions tend to stem from the dominant culture in ones life. Throughout the dominant culture that a person spends his or her time in learning and changing through different experiences many subcultures have developed. Subcultures allow people, who share similar interests to assimilate, socialize, gives them a sense of belonging and fellowship among peers.  [8] Similarities Countercultures and subcultures both identify themselves in juxtaposition to the dominant culture of a society. Members usually dress and behave in different ways than average citizens of a society and are usually identifiable by their different appearances. Differences Culture is made up of an amalgamation of subcultures. So, a single subculture is a small segment of the larger culture, which is usually defined by shared socioeconomic status or a common cultural interest. A counterculture, on the other hand, is defined by their opposition to the dominant culture. A member of a counterculture may oppose the prevailing cultures values. Or, it could just oppose certain segments of the culture, or certain subcultures. A subculture is differs slightly from the dominant culture in a society, while a counterculture opposes the culture or subculture itself.[6] Literature review Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is subversion to normality. Subcultures tend to be perceived as negative and have a nature of criticism. [9] According to Hebdige, subcultures are actually an alternative and reconfiguration of the dominant cultures. As his all very brief references to black and West Indian cultures suggest that he considers these cultures to be transplanted dominant cultures within British society. This misrepresentation raises the question of whether ethnic groups or minorities fit into Hebdiges notion of what constitutes either a parent culture or subculture. [10] According to Wolfgang Ferracuti, subculture is a normative system of some group or groups smaller than the whole society .This implies that there are value judgments or a social value system which is apart from and a part of a central value system. But a subculture is only partly different from the larger culture, and cannot be totally different from the culture of which it is a part; otherwise it is what Wolfgang called contra culture. This implies that the subculture has some major values in common with the dominant parent culture. The transmission of sub cultural values involves a learning process that establishes a dynamic lasting linkage between the values and the individuals .But also important to Wolfgangs subculture of violence theory is the notion that people may be born into a subculture. They argue that the black subculture actually values violence and that it is an integral component of the subculture which experiences high rates of homicide. Just as the dominant society punishes those who deviate from its norms, deviance by the comparatively non-violent individual from the norms of the violent subculture is likewise punished, either by being ostracized, or treated with disdain or indifference. Also, the more a person is integrated into this subculture, the more intensely he embraces its prescriptions of behavior, its conduct norms, and integrates them into his personality. The subculture of violence theory might be even more relevant today than it was when it was first published, especially with regard to juvenile crime. It seems to be a common fear that adolescents today are more violent and lacking in empathy than those of only a generation or two ago. Parker (1989) criticisms of the black subculture of violence model are many: First, the use of global indicators describing an entire class of people, southerners or blacks, assumes that these communities are homogeneous in values and lifestyle, an assumption that is clearly false for any group as large as these groups. Second, particularly in the case of blacks, it entails an implicit pejorative indictment of urban minority residents and communities, which is unfair and racist in nature. Finally this approach ignores the role of institutionalized racism itself in producing a link between violence and racial composition. Wolfgangs subculture of violence theory has had its share of critics. Erlanger (1974), Parker (1989), Shihadeh and Steffensmeier (1994), are just a few of the investigators who have failed to find the theory useful in explaining sub cultural violence. Other authors have found that the sub-culture of violence theory is a useful model, particularly when it is used along with other theories Benedict and Baron. Kennedy and Baron call for such an integrative approach, and assert that often, different theories may complement one another. Finally, still other researchers continue to rely upon the model. 11] Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture,  or middle-class culture and values. Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. It typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. Countercultures tend to peak, and then go into decline, leaving a lasting impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance and absorption into the mainstream. According to Sheila Whiteley, recent developments in sociological theory complicate and problematize theories developed in the 1960s, with digital technology, for example, providing an impetus for new understandings of counterculture. Andy Bennett writes that despite the theoretical arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term for categorizing social action, like  subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and  cultural theory to become part of a received, mediated memory.[12] Conclusion The term counter-culture is not entirely an adequate way of describing all of the changes that took place for several reasons: some changes were a progression of events throughout the century, other changes were due to scientific discoveries which have always produced new ideas and ways of looking at the world, and many changes can be better described as movements or ideologies.[14] Subcultures allow people, who share similar interests to assimilate, socialize, gives them a sense of belonging and fellowship among peers.   Sub cultural studies often involve participant-observation, and may variously emphasize sociological, anthropological, or semiotic analysis in order to address the organization and production of relational, material, and symbolic structures and systems. [15] Suggestion Healthy sub-cultures share leaderships conceptualizations of how tasks should be accomplished; how employees can advance and take on greater responsibility; how employees interact with each other; the ways in which change is accepted and accomplished; and how new knowledge is acquired and perpetuated. Distinct, healthy sub-cultures are organizationally aligned in their understanding of how they must perform to produce successful and acceptable results and outcomes. Leaders actively seeking to influence their organizations culture must consider sub-cultures. The major point here is to make sure that you are integrating and linking your sub-cultures into the broader, intended cultural objectives. Accept and foster productive sub-cultures while consistently communicating how employees must perform in order for the organization to be successful.[13]

Accounting Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Accounting Accounting is a career that offers many job opportunities and advancements, and a little hard work will inevitably lead to happiness and success. Accountants have different duties depending on the size and nature of the company where they are employed. Usually accountants prepare and analyze financial reports that polish up-to-date information for government agencies, businesses, and other organizations. The data accountants provide information that influences nearly every business and government decision. This is important because a company’s financial condition is the most important thing. Accountants also have many opportunities for part-time work especially with small businesses. There are four major Accounting fields: Management, public, government, and internal auditing. Most accountants are management accountants that are usually employed by a single company to handle their financial records. A few management accountants function as internal auditors, a fast growing field. About 1/3 of all accountants are public accountants. They usually specialize in taxes, and they work for themselves or for an acco unting firm. Government accountants maintain and examine the financial records of government agencies and check the record of businesses and individuals whose financial activities are connected with government agencies. Internal auditors review financial records and reports, to judge their reliability. They also review procedures ...